50 No. 69 JUSTICE not be overlooked, as Urdu is so vastly used, and its reach can be measured in billions. For instance, Aafreedi presents YouTube channels with antisemitic content, including ARY Digital, which, at the time that this article was being written, had over 20.6 million followers and 13,729,039,184 views. Other, similar channels have tremendous reach as well. On these channels, traditional antisemitism, antizionism, and Holocaust denial are often promoted. Aafreedi’s chapter is a particularly important contribution to the book, as it provides a glimpse into a world rarely paid attention to by Western researchers. In Chapter 8, Hendrik Gunz and Isa Schaller examine the phenomenon of propaganda by Attila Hildmann, an antisemitic conspiracy theorist and Holocaust denier who publishes videos and other forms of content online. Through various platforms like YouTube and Telegram, Hildmann promotes a “superconspiracy” that combines Nazi ideology, antisemitism, and COVID-19 denial. The authors utilize a hermeneutical approach and descriptive statistics to analyze Hildmann’s conspiracies. Their human interpretations raise the bar significantly for AI-based analysis. As asked previously in the book, can AI-based moderation tackle online antisemitism? At times, it appears that Gunz’s and Schaller’s interpretation is more effective than that of AI. This argument can be made for other chapters as well. As a holder of a doctorate in antisemitism studies and having dedicated considerable time to researching this phenomenon, I can suggest that, for now, AI-only moderation is incomplete, as Gunz and Schaller demonstrate in this chapter. In Chapter 9, Hendrik-Zoltán Andermann and Boris Zizek examine antisemitic illustrations and memes shared on social media. This adds depth to the book, which, until now, dealt with text and YouTube videos. Andermann and Zizek examine Facebook, YouTube, TikTok and Instagram and explain the dangers posed by antisemitic memes, as they are easily disseminated and clearly understood by others. These memes and depictions are not new, but they showcase traditional prejudice and stereotypes of Jews. The broader public easily recognizes many of these memes and depictions, as people worldwide have prior knowledge and preconceived ideas of what is for them a Jew. Nevertheless, the authors note that not all antisemitic memes are immediately recognizable by users, since some memes are coded in a way that only hard-core antisemites will understand. This makes the process of content moderation more complex. In Chapter 10, Gabriel Weimann and Natalie Masri examine the Chinese TikTok application (app). The authors use a systematic analysis of antisemitic content in its many forms (i.e., text, illustrations, videos) to uncover the rise of antisemitism on the app. They specifically explain that many antisemites have migrated to this new platform and, with TikTok’s growing market, are able to have a greater impact. Moreover, the danger of the radicalization of youth via the app is exceedingly high, since children and teens use it frequently. Weimann and Masri argue that young people are more susceptible and naïve when it comes to dangerous content, whether it be antisemitism, racism, terrorism, or other forms of extremism or taboo. In this chapter, a non-western social media platform is analyzed in the book for the first time. This Chinese app is interesting as it raises new questions and concerns, for instance, how to make a Chinese business compliant with Western norms. TikTok is owned by a Chinese company that is less open to Western public pressure, criticism, or international regulation, making it less likely for nonrevenue related topics to be addressed. Weimann and Masri mention that while TikTok forbids hate speech in its Terms of Service, hate speech is often not properly addressed. Weimann’s and Masri’s research is significant and should be developed further since, to date, attention has been focused almost exclusively on American-based social media platforms. In Chapter 11, Quint Czymmek examines how Jewish social media users perceive and react to antisemitism online. Czymmek draws inspiration from research previously conducted by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Human Rights, published in 2019. The author conducted his research through a qualitative method using semi-structured interviews to find out how the targets of this online hatred – Jews – feel about this phenomenon and what, if at all, they are doing to counter it. However, the author only conducted three interviews (two females, aged 20-29 and one male, aged 30-39). While the answers of the interviewees are interesting, it is not possible to infer from their responses information relating to the findings on other cases, as the perception of various events differs from one person to the next, especially with such a limited number of participants. As the author notes, they all use various social media platforms, either for personal use or as part of their affiliation with a Jewish organization. They all experience antisemitism online and are aware that preventive measures should be taken. While there are methodological limitations in this research, it is an important addition to the book as it does not focus on the perpetrators, but rather on the victims. This is an important aspect of online hatred that must be researched further since, as made evident by the presented findings, online hatred and antisemitism have a significant impact
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